Life & Career

• Born into a family of musicians in Eisenach, northern Germany; received early training in harpsichord, organ and violin
• Age 15: paid chorister at St Michael's Church, Lüneburg
• 1708: Court Organist to Duke Ernst of Weimar — composed great organ works, cantatas
• 1717: Conductor of court orchestra for Prince Leopold of Cöthen (keen viola da gamba player, ~18-member orchestra) — composed great instrumental works
• 1723 until death: Cantor (singing master) at St Thomas' Church, Leipzig — wrote cantatas (sometimes weekly!), the Passions and other monumental works. Also composed The Musical Offering and The Art of Fugue (unfinished at death)
• During his lifetime, appreciated more for his organ playing and improvisatory skill than compositions; music considered old-fashioned by end of life
• After death, largely ignored until the 19th century — Felix Mendelssohn helped revive interest; today considered a cornerstone of Western music

Musical Style

• Supreme master of counterpoint; music is highly complex
• Harmony is unambiguously tonal; works tend to be monothematic
• Late Baroque period composer

Major Compositions

• Church: Over 200 Cantatas, St Matthew Passion, St John Passion, Mass in B minor, Magnificat, Christmas Oratorio
• Secular: Peasant Cantata, Coffee Cantata
• Chamber: The Musical Offering, Sonatas and Partitas for violin
• Orchestral: 4 Suites, Violin Concertos, 6 Brandenburg Concertos
• Organ: Chorale Preludes, Toccata and Fugue in D minor
• Harpsichord: 6 Partitas, 6 French Suites, 6 English Suites, Goldberg Variations, Italian Concerto, The Well-tempered Clavier ("The 48")

The Well-tempered Clavier (BWV 846–893)

• Two books, each containing 24 preludes and fugues — one in each of the 12 major and 12 minor keys
• Written to provide practice pieces and compositional models for students, and to exploit Equal Temperament tuning
• Book I: completed 1722; Book II: completed 1744
• BWV = Bach Werke-Verzeichnis — cataloguing index made by Wolfgang Schmeider in 1950
• Shostakovich and Hindemith both wrote major works modelled on the WTC

What is a Prelude?

A short introductory piece. Bach's Preludes were commonly (not exclusively) in binary form.

What is a Fugue?

A polyphonic composition in several parts (voices, usually 3–5), based on a single theme (the subject). From Italian meaning "flight". Most Bach fugues have three sections:

• Exposition: Subject presented by each voice in turn. Second voice = Answer (transposed to dominant — Real if exact, Tonal if slightly altered). Counter-subject = countermelody heard with the answer. May include a Codetta (short link).
• Modulatory Section: Modulates to keys other than tonic/dominant. May use: Episode (contrasting passage, subject absent), Stretto (subject entries overlap = canon), Inversion (subject turned upside-down).
• Recapitulation: Final decisive return of subject in tonic key. Usually shortest section.

Baroque Characteristics in the WTC

Prelude BWV 875 — Binary Form

• Section A (b.1–34): Begins in tonic (D minor), ends in dominant (A minor, from b.25). Sequential passage through C major (b.10), F major (b.11), Bb major (b.12), returning to D minor (b.14). Neapolitan 6th chord in b.17.
• Section B (b.35–61): Begins in subdominant (G minor), returns to tonic around b.39, with continued references to G minor (with Eb and F#). Tonic pedal in bass from b.57 to end. Tierce de Picardie in the last bar.

Fugue BWV 875 — 3 Voices (Soprano, Alto, Bass)

• Exposition: b.1 Subject in alto (D minor) → b.3 Real answer in soprano, counter-subject in alto (A minor) → b.5 Codetta (A minor → D minor) → b.6 Subject in bass, counter-subject in soprano (D minor)
• Modulatory Section: Episodes (I, II, III) using new theme with similarities to counter-subject, passing through G minor, C major, F major, Bb major. Stretto entries at b.14 (alto & soprano) and b.17 (inversion of subject). Inversion of subject used imitatively.
• Recapitulation (b.25): Subject (incomplete) in alto, inversion in bass, then subject in soprano with counter-subject in bass — all D minor.
• Real fugue — answer is exact transposition of subject up a 5th

For What Instrument?

Written for harpsichord (or clavichord). The harpsichord has strings plucked by a quill — no dynamic shading from touch, no sustaining pedal. Tone dies away rapidly. Up to 5 octaves.

Contemporaries of J.S. Bach

German: G.F. Handel, Johann Quantz, G.P. Telemann. Other: Jean-Philippe Rameau, Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi.

Life & Career

• Born Hamburg 1833; settled in Vienna 1868, remained until death 1897
• As a teenager, earned a living playing piano in theatres and taverns; also worked as teacher and accompanist
• 1853: Talents recognised by Robert Schumann — several compositions accepted for publication
• Lived with the Schumann family in Düsseldorf 1854–1856 (Robert's death); developed a deep and lasting friendship with Clara Schumann (until her death 1896)
• Gave concerts as pianist and conductor; briefly director of Vienna Singakademie and the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde
• 1890: Expressed intention to retire from composing, but was inspired by clarinettist Richard Mühlfeld to continue
• Final years: chamber works for clarinet, piano pieces Opp. 116–119, Four Serious Songs

Musical Style

• Protégé of Schumann; admirer of Beethoven
• Romantic in lyrical melodies, rich harmonies, full textures, but often more classically oriented in formal construction
• Great rivalry in his lifetime: Brahms (preservers of classical tradition) vs Richard Wagner (more progressive approach)

Principal Works

• 4 Symphonies, 2 Piano Concertos, Violin Concerto, Clarinet Quintet, Piano Quintet, German Requiem
• Piano: 3 early sonatas, ballades, capriccios, intermezzos, rhapsodies, studies, variations, waltzes
• Opp. 116–119 are his last piano works (1891–93)

About the Intermezzo Op. 118 No. 2

• Part of Opp. 116–119 — Brahms's last piano works, composed 1891–93
• Inspired by clarinettist Richard Mühlfeld — piano writing became more mellow and lyrical
• Intermezzo = a short, lyrical concert piece (Brahms's usage). Schumann also used the title. More specifically, it can indicate a middle movement of a larger work (e.g. Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana Intermezzo)
• Melody is almost entirely within the range of the human (soprano) voice

Romantic Characteristics

Structure: Ternary Form — A major

• A (b.1–16): 8-bar melody heard twice. Second time is pp with small harmonic changes. Begins A major, modulates to E major (dominant) both times.
• A (b.17–34): Increasing chromaticism; A major tonality maintained through dominant pedals in bass. b.30–34: bass alludes to the opening melody.
• A (b.35–48): Remaining in A major, mostly diatonic, tonic pedal in bars 38–41. Theme here is an inversion of the opening melody.
• B (b.49–76):
  • b.49–56: F# minor (relative minor), modulating to C# minor at b.55
  • b.57–64: Più lento, F# major; canonic imitation between hands (F#–E#–D# etc.)
  • b.65–76: F# minor, building to f climax, then returning to A major around b.75
• A (b.77 onward): 8-bar melody heard once but with more intensity, altered voicing, higher climactic note in b.82. Remainder as before.

Note: Each main section (A) itself contains three parts — making this a ternary form with internal subdivisions.

Key Terms

• Andante teneramente: at an easy walking pace, tenderly
• Calando: becoming softer and slower
• Cresc un poco animato: gradually becoming louder and a little animated
• Più lento: slower

Contemporaries of Brahms

German/Austrian: Robert Schumann, Richard Wagner, Anton Bruckner. Other: Franz Liszt, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonin Dvořák.

About Jane Hammond

• Australian composer, professional pianist and musical director; completed PhD in Music Composition at Monash University
• Composed for large and small ensembles, community and professional theatre, Australian state and national opera companies
• 5 operas for children performed by Opera Australia, Lyric Opera Queensland, Victoria State Opera — toured Japan and UK (Scottish International Children's Festival). One production seen by over 80,000 children in Victoria and NSW.
• Song cycle Sea Voyage (baritone & piano) premiered at Edinburgh Fringe; won Benelux International Song and Culture Festival award for best Classical Music Composition
• Musical director/composer of Voicing Emily: The Life and Art of Emily Dickinson — described as "a work of ravishing beauty and rare artistic distinction" (Melbourne Age)
• Recipient of Monash Postgraduate Award and Postgraduate Publishing Award

Other Notable Works

• Dancing With Ghosts — for wind symphony; selected as Australian national submission for ISCM World Music Days 2011
• In a Room with Rachmaninoff — solo piano; premiered at Melbourne Recital Centre by Ukrainian pianist Tamara Smolyar; performed in Europe and Asia; recorded by ABC
• A Lyrebird in Paris — clarinet, cello and piano; premiered by Ensemble Liaison Melbourne 2011; broadcast on 3MBSFM and ABC Radio National 2013
• There is a Solitude — solo piano
• Works available on Move Records and through the Australian Music Centre

About Anywhere

• A setting without voice of the poem Spring Morning by English poet Alan Alexander Milne (1882–1956) from his 1924 collection When We Were Very Young
• The poem begins: "Where am I going? I don't quite know."
• Style and tone intended to be reminiscent of pianists Keith Jarrett and Liz Story
• Tempo markings are suggestions only; use of rubato is appropriate
• Jazz-inspired; sounds like an improvisation

Structure Overview

• Opening (b.1–10): Fragments and question marks; jazz-like, improvisational character
• Section A (b.11+): Built melodically and harmonically on 5ths. Key centre ambiguous — Bb major and C major chords alternating.
• Middle section (b.37–91): Anchored around D natural minor; richer sound with fuller chords in RH, lower arpeggios in LH. Interrupted by birdcalls (b.55–57) and a descending passage built on whole-tone scale.
• Return (b.92+): Lighter texture of the beginning returns in a new version, until fading to a whisper.

Style Influences

• Keith Jarrett: Known for solo improvisations (e.g. The Köln Concert); spontaneous, trance-like; lyrical with diverse influences (jazz, gospel, folk, classical); emotional depth
• Liz Story: Jazz harmony influenced by Bill Evans; impressionistic; balance of economy and floridity; evocative, "watercolor" quality
• Anywhere: Improvisational feel (like Jarrett); jazz harmonics and impressionistic fragmented opening (like Story); emotional depth and vivid imagery

Musical Features

Performance Notes

Long sweeping pedals help maintain a sense of drive and direction. Following tempo changes as marked produces the intended effect of impulsive creativity. The main challenge is to create a sense of spontaneous improvisation.

Life & Career

• Studied at the Paris Conservatoire; won the Prix de Rome — studied in Rome 1885–1887
• Visits to Bayreuth 1888 & 1889 led to brief intoxication with Wagner, then utter rejection of Wagner's approach
• Significant influences: Musorgsky (opera Boris Godunov) and Javanese gamelan music (heard at Universal Exposition, Paris 1889)
• Music critic for La revue blanche and Gil Blas; also pianist and conductor
• 1903: Awarded the Légion d'honneur
• Developed cancer in his 40s; died Paris 1918, age 55
• Deliberately attempted to create a distinctively French style; called himself "Musicien Français"

Compositional Style — Impressionism

• Affinity with Impressionist painters (Monet, Manet, Renoir, Degas) and Symbolist writers (Verlaine, Mallarmé)
• Oscar Thompson defined Impressionism as art that aims to "suggest rather than depict… to interpret a fugitive impression rather than to seize upon and fix the permanent reality"
• Debussy objected to the label "Impressionist" — some scholars prefer "Symbolist"
• Used chords purely for their sonority, not harmonic function; dissonances left unresolved; parallel chord streams
• Avoided traditional cadences; scales without a leading note (modal, pentatonic, whole-tone)
• Pedal points used to assert tonal centre; apparently unrelated harmonies juxtaposed

Impressionist Piano Characteristics

Major Piano Works

• Rêverie, Deux arabesques, Suite bergamasque, L'isle joyeuse
• Estampes, Images (two sets of three), Children's Corner
• Préludes (two books of 12), Etudes, Fantaisie for piano and orchestra
• En blanc et noir (two pianos), Petite suite (piano duet)

Other Major Works

• Opera: Pelléas et Mélisande
• Orchestral: Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, La mer
• Chamber: String quartet, violin sonata, cello sonata, sonata for flute, viola and harp
• Many songs

About the Préludes

• Two books of 12 short pieces each, composed 1909–1913 — among his later piano works
• Each piece develops from its opening idea; broad binary or ternary form sometimes discernible
• Unlike Chopin's Préludes, no fixed key sequence; not necessarily performed as a complete set
• Each has a title (literary reference or scene/character/event) placed at the end of the piece (not the beginning) — "almost as an afterthought"; suggestions for stimulating performer/audience rather than a full "programme"
• The title Prelude originally indicated an improvised piece preceding another work

"General Lavine" — eccentric (Book II, No. 6)

• Style and tempo of a Cakewalk — a dance of African-American origin with syncopated rhythms and ragtime (early jazz) style
• Also by Debussy: Golliwog's Cakewalk (Children's Corner) and Le petit Nègre
• Title refers to American comedian Edward Lavine, stage name "General Lavine, the Eccentric" — Debussy captures his stiff wooden gait and comical juggling antics
• Key: F major; Form: Ternary

Structure

• Introduction (b.1–10): Strident flourish decorating a dominant pedal point — characteristic gesture of the General. Right hand has unrelated parallel triads (typically impressionistic).
• Section A (b.11–45):
  • b.11–22: Cakewalk in F major, mostly pentatonic (F–G–A–C–D). Introductory motive intrudes b.17–18.
  • b.23–34: Cakewalk continues with increasing chromaticism. Neapolitan and dominant 7th chords of G (b.25–28). Dominant pedal b.31–34 returns to F.
  • b.35–45: Cakewalk melody returns (as b.11), new harmonisation with 7th chords b.39–42. Introductory motive now based on tonic rather than dominant.
• Section B (b.46–69): Db major. Parallel triads of the introduction, now legato and lethargic. Dominant pedal throughout much of passage; unrelated parallel triads b.51–54 and 63–64.
• Section A (b.70–93): Reprise of b.11–34.
• Coda (b.94–109): Cakewalk theme in Gb major (the "Neapolitan" key, b.94–100), parallel triads (b.101–102), introductory motive, concluding with perfect cadence in F major b.106–109.

Contemporaries of Debussy

Gabriel Fauré (French), Isaac Albéniz (Spanish), Frederick Delius (English), Erik Satie (French), Ralph Vaughan Williams (English), Arnold Schoenberg (Austrian), Maurice Ravel (French — the other main Impressionist composer), Paul Dukas (French), Aleksandr Skryabin (Russian).

Life & Career

• Born in Rohrau, Austria (1732); moved to Vienna at age 8 to sing, compose and perform as a church musician. Younger brother Michael also a successful composer.
• 1750s: Freelance musician and teacher; studied composition with Italian opera composer Nicola Porpora. Influenced by Fux's Gradus ad Parnassum (counterpoint treatise) and music of C.P.E. Bach.
• 1761: Entered service of the Esterházy family (richest Hungarian noble family) — initially as vice-Kapellmeister in Eisenstadt, then Kapellmeister at Eszterháza palace, Hungary
• International reputation grew; by the 1780s, the most celebrated composer of the time
• Mentor and friend to Mozart; teacher of Beethoven
• 1790s: Obtained leave from Eszterháza; two very successful tours to London
• Died Vienna 1809, age 77

Musical Style & Historical Significance

• One of the founders of the Classical style — emphasised elegance, clarity, formal design, thematic development
• Transformed the symphony from light entertainment to serious intellectual art form
• Helped establish the string quartet and piano sonata as important genres
• Sturm und Drang period (1760s–early 1770s): more passionate and brooding, often in minor keys
• Later works: more unusual forms, key relationships, increased chromaticism
• Characteristic good humour almost always evident

Major Compositions

• Keyboard: ~50 sonatas/divertimenti, 3+ concertos, capriccios, fantasias, variations, dances
• Orchestral: 100+ Symphonies (incl. "The Drumroll", "The Surprise")
• Chamber: 60+ String Quartets (incl. "The Lark", "The Emperor")
• Choral: Oratorios The Creation, The Seasons; Operas; Masses

Haydn's Keyboard Sonatas

• Catalogued by Dutch musicologist Anthony van Hoboken (1887–1983) — Group XVI = keyboard sonatas; Hob. XVI Nos. 20–52 = mature sonatas. Alternative: Christina Landon "L" numbers.
• Earlier sonatas: written for harpsichord — predominantly 2-part texture, sparing dynamics
• Later sonatas: written for fortepiano — chordal texture, dynamic contrasts, pedalling
• Usually 3 movements (fast-slow-fast); some have only 2 movements

Classical Characteristics

Sonata in F major Hob. XVI:23 — Composed 1773

Three movements: fast-slow-fast. The Hob. number refers to Anthony van Hoboken's catalogue; group XVI = piano sonatas.

1st Movement — Sonata Form, F major

• Exposition (b.1–46): 1st Subject (b.1–12): F major, perfect cadences b.3–4 and 11–12. Transition (b.12–20): D minor (relative minor, b.14–16) → C major (dominant), imperfect cadence. 2nd Subject (b.21–44): C major (except b.29–32 in C minor), running demisemiquavers. Codetta (b.44–46): C major, tonic pedal.
• Development (b.47–85): 1st subject theme C major → F major → Bb major (b.51–54) → G minor (b.55) → D minor (b.57). Codetta theme modified (D minor, b.58–60). Transition theme D minor (b.61–67). Free fantasia (b.68–85): D minor with frequent diminished 7th chords; returns via G minor to F major; dominant pedal b.80–83.
• Recapitulation (b.86–127): 1st Subject (b.86–96): F major, slightly abridged, imperfect cadence. Transition: omitted. 2nd Subject (b.97–125): F major (b.101–113 varies, referring to development). Codetta (b.125–127): F major, tonic pedal.
• Ornaments: appoggiatura (b.2, 3), trill, mordent/pralltriller. Wedge sign = staccato (Haydn's day).

2nd Movement — Binary Form, F minor, Adagio

• Section A (b.1–20): First theme F minor, imperfect cadence (b.1–4). Second theme mostly Ab major (relative major), with brief Db major references; perfect cadence (b.5–20).
• Section B (b.21–39): First theme modified in Bb minor (subdominant, b.21–23). Second theme in C minor (dominant) → Ab major (b.25–26) → F minor; perfect cadence (b.24–39).
• Ornaments: mordents, appoggiaturas, trills, turns

3rd Movement — Sonata Form, F major, Presto

• Light and witty; uses same theme for both subject groups — unusual but not unprecedented in Haydn
• Exposition (b.1–52): 1st Subject (b.1–8): F major, perfect cadence. Transition (b.9–32): F major variant → C major (dominant), perfect cadence b.26–27. 2nd Subject (b.33–48): Same theme as 1st, C major, different articulation. Codetta (b.49–52): C major, tonic pedal.
• Development (b.53–93): Transition motive with diminished 7th chords → G minor (b.53–58). 1st subject imitatively/sequentially: G minor → Eb major → F minor → D minor (relative minor) imperfect cadence (b.59–76). Transition motive D minor (b.77–85). Variant of 1st subject, dominant pedal b.90–93 (b.86–93).
• Recapitulation (b.94–147): 1st Subject (b.94–111): F major then extended with sequences, 8-bar dominant pedal. Transition (b.112–127): Now remaining in F major. 2nd Subject (b.128–143): F major. Codetta (b.144–147): F major, tonic pedal.
• Ornaments: appoggiaturas and mordents

For What Instrument?

Composed 1773 — written for the fortepiano. Lighter tone than modern piano, wood frame, leather hammers, smaller range (~5½ octaves), knee-operated sustaining pedal. Less sustaining power. Earlier Haydn sonatas were written for harpsichord.

Contemporaries of Haydn

C.P.E. Bach (German), J.C. Bach (German), Michael Haydn (Austrian), Luigi Boccherini (Italian), Muzio Clementi (Italian), W.A. Mozart (Austrian), Ludwig van Beethoven (German).

Baroque (c.1600 – c.1750)

• Instrument: Harpsichord, clavichord. Forms: Binary, ternary, ritornello, fugue, dance suite
• One main mood, one main theme, one main rhythmic pattern throughout; constant rhythmic pulse
• Counterpoint (polyphonic texture) and imitation; both hands often of equal importance
• Ornamentation common (trills begin on upper note); clearly articulated sound; terraced dynamics
• Long phrases; modulations to closely related keys; Tierce de Picardie in minor keys; sequences and hemiola
• Composers: Purcell, Couperin, Telemann, Rameau, J.S. Bach, Handel, Scarlatti

Classical (c.1750 – c.1810)

• Instrument: Fortepiano. Forms: Sonata, rondo, minuet & trio, theme & variations
• Light, elegant, restrained; homophonic; short balanced phrases; Alberti bass
• Diatonic harmonies; modulations to closely related keys; clearly articulated sound; discreet rubato
• Composers: Haydn, Clementi, Mozart, Beethoven, Hummel, Schubert

Romantic (c.1810 – c.1900)

• Instrument: Pianoforte (developing). Forms: Ternary, through-composed
• Passionate, expressive; rubato; thick textures; wide range; chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); modulations by 3rds; lyrical phrases; pedal essential
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Albéniz

Impressionist (c.1890 – c.1918)

• Instrument: Pianoforte. Forms: Through-composed (free form)
• Delicate and misty; no strong regular accent; light ethereal textures; generally soft dynamics; "piano without hammers"
• No dominant-tonic cadences; modal/whole-tone/pentatonic scales; parallel chords including 7ths and 9ths; pedal points; vagueness of harmony, rhythm, form
• Composers: Debussy, Ravel (French); Delius, Scott (English)

20th / 21st Century

• Great diversity; some abandoned common-practice principles
• Atonality; serial/12-tone techniques (Schoenberg); percussive piano (Bartók, Prokofiev)
• Neoclassicists; postmodernists; nationalist composers (Ginastera)
• Contemporary Australian: Jane Hammond — jazz-influenced, impressionistic, improvisatory

Piano Predecessors

• Harpsichord (c.1400–1800): Strings plucked by quill/leather; no dynamic shading by touch; up to 5 octaves; some have 2 manuals; tone dies rapidly; relatives = virginal, spinet. J.S. Bach's WTC written for this.
• Clavichord (c.1400–1800): Strings struck by tangent (brass blade); capable of dynamics but very soft; can produce Bebung vibrato; J.S. Bach's favourite (according to Forkel, his first biographer). C.P.E. Bach's music especially suited to it.
• Fortepiano (late 18th C): Wood frame, leather hammers, ~5½ octaves, knee-operated sustaining pedal, no overstringing; lighter/thinner tone with less sustaining power. Mozart's and Haydn's sonatas written for this.

Piano Development Timeline

• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori (Florence) invents "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• 1780s: Range increases to 5½ octaves; 1790s: 6 octaves; 1816: 6½ octaves; 1822: 7 octaves
• 1820s: Metal frames begin to be used
• 1821: Double-escapement action — Sébastien Erard (easier rapid repetition)
• 1826: Felt hammer coverings — Henri Pape, Paris
• 1859: Overstringing — Henry Steinway Jr. (sympathetic vibration, longer strings)
• 1874: Sostenuto (selective sustain) pedal — Albert Steinway

Exam Tips

• ✅ Memorise composer birth/death dates and year each piece was composed
• ✅ Know at least 6 piano works per major composer
• ✅ Be able to describe form in about 5 sentences — practise out loud or record yourself
• ✅ Always relate answers back to the score — point to passages, don't just recite
• ✅ For any chord/technique, explain WHY it was used, not just what it is
• ❌ Don't memorise bar numbers — just point to the music
• ❌ Don't list every cadence — know where structurally important ones are
• 💡 Dominant pedal = excitement/expectation; Tonic pedal = clarifies harmony; Suspension = expressive tension; Circle of 5ths = clear harmonic direction; Neapolitan 6th = richness, leads to dominant